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"The generic term sharru or precentor in Assyria can be traced in the sha'ir or poet-soothsayer of the Arabs. The Assyrian hymn was the shire, and in it we recognize the Hebrew shir (song) and the Arabic shi'r (poetry). The Psalm of David in Assyrian was the zamaru, which equates with the Hebrew zimrah (song) and mizmor (psalm). Certainly the Assyrian shigu or penitential psalm is identical with the shiggaion of the Hebrew and the shajan of the Arabs in origin. Likewise, the allu or wail in Assyrian may be linked up with the Hebrew and Arabic elal and wilwal. Indeed, the Assyrian shidru or recitation may find its cognate in the inshad of the Arabs. Yet scarcely a line has come down to us concerning the hymn of the ancient Arabs, that their songs were appreciated is borne out by an inscription of Ashurbanipal (7th century B.C.), where Arab prisoners toiling for their Assyrian masters whiled away their hours in singing (alili) and music (ninguti), which so delighted the Assyrians that they begged for more.

In Arabia, the Bedouin soul was essentially music-loving. Its aspirations, its movements, and its impulses were all reflected in the rhythmic expression of Arabic verse, whose meter could be as short or long as the step of a camel. Under the rule of the Qoraish at Mecca, the poets and minstrels from all parts of the peninsula vied with each other for supremacy in their art during the fair of Ukaz. It was here that the singing girls (qainat or qiyan) sang the famous mu'allaqat. The Arabic poetry of pre-Islamic era is predominantly secular, and the poets retained their pagan character. Even minor allusions to God are extremely rare. The Hanif and Christian poets however praised God and expressed feelings of wonder at His creation, such as Waraqa bin Naufal, Umayya bin Abi as-Sallat (d. 624), Nabigha al-Jadi, Quss bin Sa'ida (d. 600), Abul Qays Sirma, Labid bin Rabia, etc. There were the old pagan chanting of the pilgrimage, the tahlil and talbiyya, which were turned favourably to the account of Islam and became lawful, even to the allowability of the tabl (drum) and shahin (fife) as an accompaniment (Ihya Ulum, p. 220). Hassan bin Thabit (d. 40/661), known as the "poet laureate" of the Prophet, devoted his time in composing in defence of Islam and praise of the Prophet. It is related that in the battle of Banu Quraiza, the Prophet encouraged him by telling that Jibrail helped him in the composition of his poetry. When Ka'b bin Zuhayr embraced Islam in Mecca, he recited his famous piece known as Banat Su'ad, much to the delight of the Prophet. Transported with admiration on hearing the praises of himself, the Prophet threw onto the poet's shoulders his own striped mantle (burda) from the Yamen, and ordered others to hear his couplets. Zuhayr bin Sard of Banu Sa'd had accompanied the delegation of Hawazan to the Prophet. He recited an ode in his praise. After hearing him, the Prophet ordered release of all their prisoners. The Prophet so much liked the verses of Umayya bin Abi Sallat that he used to say, "The poetry of Umayya has accepted Islam, but his heart is still adamant." The Prophet appreciated the following couplet of Lubayd bin Rabi'ah and described it as one of the best specimens of Arabic poetry: "Listen! Every thing, except God, is perishable, and surely every comfort of life is to be snatched" (al-Isti'ab). In sum, the first praise poems for the Prophet were however written during his lifetime. Hassan bin Thabit served him as a poet in Medina. His duty was in a certain sense that of a journalist who poetically recorded the important events that happened in the young Islamic community. He was there to denigrate the Prophet's enemies and to extol the brave deeds of the Muslims. He says, "I witness with God's permission that Muhammad is the Messenger who is higher than the heaven" (Diwan, ed. Walid N. Arafat, London, 1971, no. 89).

The Prophet is reported to have said, "God has not sent a Prophet except with a beautiful voice." (Ihya Ulum, p. 209). Ibn Rabbihi writes that the Prophet said, "Teach your children poetry which will sweeten their tongue." ((Iqd al-Farid, 3:178).

Anas bin Malik related that the Prophet used to make him sing the huda (caravan song) when traveling, and that Anjusha used to sing it for the women and al-Bara bin Malik for the men (Ibid. p. 217). Ghazalli testifies that the huda did not cease to be one of the customs of the Arabs in the time of the Prophet, and in the time of the Companions, and that it is nothing but poems equipped with agreeable sounds (salawat tayyiba) and measured melodies (alhan mauzuna) (Ibid). Ibn Athir writes that once the Prophet heard the voice of the singing-girl when passing the abode of Hassan bin Thabit, who asked if it were sinful to sing. The Prophet said, "Certainly not!" (Usd al-Ghaba, 5:496). Hujwiri writes that a slave-girl was singing in the house of A'isha when Umar asked leave to enter. As soon as the slave-girl heard his steps, she ran away. He came in and the Prophet smiled. Umar said, "O'Prophet! What has made you smile?" The Prophet answered, "A slave-girl was singing here, but she run away as soon as she heard your step." "I will not depart," said Umar, "until I hear what the Prophet heard." The Prophet called the girl back and she began to sing, the Prophet listening to her (Kashf al-Mahjub, p. 401).

We also read that the girls greeted the Prophet in jubilant in Medina from the housetops with recitation (inshad) set to melody (lahn), and accompanied by the beating of tambourines (dufuf) (Ihya Ulum, p. 224). Syed Waheeduddin writes in The Benefactor (Lahore, 1964, p. 33) that, "The Banu Najjar led the welcoming crowds in full armour, their weapons glistening in the sun. The whole of Yathirab lined the road in orderly rows. Young girls played on their tambourines and sang song of welcome. There was an unprecedented marry-making, and when Muhammad came to the group of Umar bin Awf Najjari, the well-dressed girls came out of seclusion, danced and sang to the tune of music the following ballad: "We belong to the clan of Najjar, (we are) Muhammad's soldiers from the Jari."

There is a story of A’isha who took to one of the Ansars his bride. When she returned, the Prophet said to her, “Did you lead the girl to her husband?” She said, “Yes.” He then said, “And did you not send someone who could sing?” She said, “No.” The Prophet then said, “Surely you knew that the Ansars are people who delight in the ghazal.” Bilal was the son of an Abyssinian slave-girl. To him the Prophet is claimed to have once said, “O’Bilal, sing us a ghazal” (Ibn Hisham, p. 205). Once the Prophet was riding with some Companions when he asked one of them to recite the poetry of Umayya. A hundred lines were recited for him, and the Prophet said at the finish, “Well done!” “And when the satire in the poetry and the talking about it wearied them,” says the tradition, “it was said, ‘The poetry is good and we do not see any harm in a beautiful melody (lahn)’” (Ibid.) The song of war was allowable because it summons a man to warfare by inciting courage. The actual battle-song, such as that in the rajaz verses, was allowed on the same grounds. According to Kashf al-Mahjub (p. 407), “There is an abundant literature which tells us of people who have been deeply influenced by the beautiful voice.” It implies that the tradition of reciting odes of eulogy in Islam came down from the period of the Prophet.

Love and devotion for the Prophet are the cornerstones of Islamic practice and are marks of its uniqueness. Muslims have shown their love and devotion to their Prophet in many ways, the most common being the recitation of the salawat. They have also expressed it through innumerable poems written in almost every language of the Islamic world, rendered in a variety of literary forms ranging from the classical ode to the popular ballad, whether these are the sophisticated composition of the literate or the folk songs sung by villagers, the poems are equally filled with warm human emotion towards the Prophet. The na’t, extolling the Prophet is a good example in this context.

Henry George Farmer writes in History of Arabian Music (London, 1929, p. 43) that, “Ali was himself a poet, and he was the first caliph who extended any open and real protection to the fine arts and letters by authorizing the study of the sciences, poetry and music.” Ali had also emphasized to collect Arabic proverbs and their authority and learn them by heart. His epic poems composed on the occasion of the battle of Siffin are considered among the best pieces of Arabic literature.

The most instrumental role to glorify the dignity of Imam Zayn al-Abidin (d. 94/713) was played by a famous Poet Farazdaq (d. 112/730). He composed numerous verses to propagate the cause of the Imam, the most renowned of which was his encomium (qasida) he recited, addressing to Hisham bin Abdul Malik (d. 125/743) during the occasion of the pilgrimage. Kumyt bin Zaid al-Asadi (d. 126/744) was most talented poet, who was imprisoned by the Umayyad and murdered. His famous composition, al-Hashimiyyat is among the earliest literary records of a distinctive Muslim piety focused upon devotion to the Prophet and the Ahl al-Bayt.

The Fatimids also maintained a retinue of professional poets, and ranked according to their skills, who played important role in court ritual and public ceremonial. The most famous court poets were Ibn Idhari, Ibn Hani (d. 362/973) and Ibn Hajib (d. 387/997). Abu Hatim ar-Razi (d. 322/934) also mastered in Arabic poetry. There is scarce of information about the other poets who flourished under the patronage of the Fatimids. Imam al-Muizz (d. 365/975) also held good command in Arabic poetry. Abu Tamim (d. 374/984), the son of Imam al-Muizz, was a highly accomplished composer of religious verses with deep loyalty and affection for the Imams. Makrizi writes in Itti’az (p. 387) that, "Al-Hakim had skillfulness in the knowledge of poetry which no other man had in Egypt. At his court, the poets would gather to recite their poetry, while he would listen carefully and ask for the repetition of every verse, which held exceptional meaning. Each of them would receive gifts of money in accordance with the quality of his works." The poems of Muayyad fid-din Shirazi (d. 470/1078) are also significant for the thoroughgoing religiosity by which he sets them apart from the political and ceremonial poetry of the court. Nasir Khusaro (d. 481/1088) composed several philosophical works as well as the poems for which he is equally celebrated. The renowned poet and intellect, Rudaki (d. 329/940) was a court poet of the Samanids, and composed many poems in praise of the Fatimid Imams. In one place, Maruf of Balkh, one of the earliest Samanid poets, says: "I have heard the king of poets, Rudaki as saying, `do not give allegiance to anyone save the Fatimids.’"

The writings, which have survived from the Alamut period, include some verses, such as the odes of Ra’is Hasan, who visited Alamut from Khorasan in 587/1191. Imam Ala Muhammad (d. 607/1210) was also well steeped in Arabic and composed many proverbs and poetry in Arabic, whose fragments were into the memories of the Muslims in Qazwin. Shamsuddin bin Ahmad al-Tayyibi (d. 652/1254) was an eminent Ismaili poet in Syria. He visited Alamut during the period of Imam Alauddin Muhammad, where he served as a court-poet. In the aftermath of the Mongol invasion, many of the Ismailis who survived the widespread massacre, were obliged to flee Iran or to conceal identities by associating themselves with diverse Sufi circles. The only substantial work by an Ismaili from this bleak period is the poetry of Nizari Kohistani (d. 720/1320). The poetry of post-Alamut period arose directly from the activities of the Ismaili dawa. The tradition was probably renewed by Abdullah Ansari (d. 960/1553), reinforced by Khayr Khwah Herati (d. after 960/1553), Niazi and Azizullah Qummi of 9th/15th century, and continued over the centuries in Iran, notably in the family of Khaki Khorasani (d. 1056/1646) and his son, Ali Quli, who produced highly talented poet like Fidai Khorasani (d. 1342/1923). The Ismailis in Iran brought forth many other gifted poets, whose works are either lost or remain unearthed, as in the case of Mahmud Ali, who flourished in the 11th/17th century, and Amiri Shirazi, who was blinded, then executed by the Safavids in 999/1591. Persian poetry began to bloom in the 10th century after the literate of Iran had expressed themselves during the first centuries after the Muslim conquests. The forms of Persian verses have an independent character and they have not always followed the Arabic pattern. The mathnawi, tarji-band, tarkib-band, musammat, muthallath, murabba, mukhammas, mustazad and ruba’i are all exclusive to Persian poetry and originated solely in the Persian genius. E.G. Browne has praised Nasir Khusaro because he does not indulge in empty rhetorical plays as do the court poets, who cover their lack of true thoughts with brilliant verbal plays. The same skill with which Nasir Khusaro chose meters that are fitting for his serious thoughts is displayed in his rhyming technique. Dawlat Shah claims that Nasir Khusaro’s Diwan consists of 30,000 verse and is a collection of words of wisdom, and preaching and firm and well established words.

Abu Firas (d. 947/1540) was hailed from Syria. He was an eminent da’i in Syria. His Qasidat al-Nasab reveals his literally skills both in prose and poetry to great extent. The Syrian Ismaili poet, Shaikh Haji Khudr (d. 1026/1616) visited Iran for an audience with Imam Nizar II (d. 1038/1628). He possessed a remarkable poetic talent. Mazid al-Hilli al-Asadi was born in Iraq in the 5th century of Hijra. He migrated to Masiyaf and his grave is next to that of Rashiduddin Sinan. He was also a renowned Ismaili poet.

The spread of Ismailism was spearheaded by a long series of Persian da’is or pirs and their successors, whose teachings were conducted almost through devotional hymns, known as ginans in Indo-Pakistan subcontinent. A large number of these poems were preserved as an oral tradition for several centuries.

It is seen in the Ismaili history that most of the followers lived far from the headquarters of the Imams for very long time. They adhered to their faith unwavering and acquired spiritual vigour from the bits of the ritual hymns of the da’is and the mystics, and breathed the sigh of relief during that crying need. These literary compositions provided benign peace to great extent. These ritual songs or hymns are sung in different melodies, which can be easily memorized both by literate and illiterate followers. The common features of the literature are the glorification of Ahl al-Bayt and the love for the Imam. This devotional literature is rich with the notion of inner aspects of Islam. They recited them to refresh their faith. Time has changed and the Ismailis are now close to their Imam, even then they continue to adhere to the devotional literature in different countries, and revere the Imam through the lenses of their traditional hymns. On account of their distinctive linguistic and cultural background, the religious hymns represent an important regional and ethnic element in a broader corpus of Ismaili devotional literature that includes works in Arabic, Persian, Hindi, Tajik and even Burushaski, a language of the Northern Areas of Pakistan. Its perspectives may vary, but are united in their focus on the depiction within local cultural and literary idioms. For example, the Muslims see their Prophet through a variety of lenses. Portrayals of the Prophet in popular literature are strongly influenced by diverse interpretations of his status as well as local cultural and literary idioms. A village woman in Bangladesh may well conceive of her relationship to the Prophet in entirely different way than a Bedouin nomad in Arabian land. The poetic traditions originated from diverse cultural regions to address the adherents in their own terms. The vocabulary, similes and technical terms incorporated in the devotional literature were confined to home trades, cottage industries and social customs. This should not however indicate that its language was crude and vulgar. It was nursed in the towns and villages, therefore, bore strong impressions of its surroundings. The great anxiety to convey the devotional emotions imparted a sort of beauty and sweetness. Similes were taken from everyday life and were used with skillful restraint and proceeded in order.

The kalam of Imam al-Aziz (d. 386/996), Abu Ali Sina (d. 428/1037), the odes of Ibn Hani (d. 362/973), Abul Fawaris (d. 413/1022), Muayyad fid-din Shirazi (d. 470/1078), Abu Tamim (d. 374/984), Muhammad bin Ali as-Suri (d. 488/1095) and Shaikh Haji Khudr (d. 1026/1616) are sung among the Syrian Ismailis, known as al-anashid adiniyya (religious hymns). These religious hymns are also called al-ash’gal means activities, which are recited on festive occasions and on specific days in the Jamatkhana, preferably on Monday, Tuesday and Wednesday between two prayers at evening. Some are recited before morning prayer. One or more persons recite it and the jamat listens it attentively.

In the Northern Areas of Pakistan and the Central Asia, the Persian manaqiba and qasa’id of Nasir Khusaro (d. 481/1088), the munajat of Hasan bin Sabbah, the mystical poems of Shams Tabriz (d. 645/1247), Jalaluddin Rumi (d. 672/1273), Fariduddin Attar (d. 622/1225) and Hafiz (d. 792/1390) are devotedly recited. Besides, the qasida of different da’is are also sung, such as Syed Karamali Shah, Syed Shah Zahur, Syed Bakir Shah, Syed Karim Hyder, Syed Shah Aradabil, Syed Hussain, Syed Shah Abdur Rahim, Syed Yaqut Shah, Mushafiq Yarkandi, etc. These manaqib are chanted in the Jamatkhanas as well as in the majalis-i dawat al-baqa. Sometimes, in early morning, a kind of zikr-i jali, known as bait al-medan is performed. The people stand in reverence and listen the hymns and are thus intoxicated. The mukhums (a poem of five lines) of Tugha-i Ispahani is also famous in the Northern Areas of Pakistan.

The qasida (panegyric poem) is a long poem in one of the Persian quantitative meters and has only one rhyme syllable or rhyming word through the entire poem. In the manaqiba, the character and achievement of the Ahl al-Bayt and the Imam are extolled. The word manqaba (pl. manaqib) means a road between two houses, the mountainous passage, a laudable virtuous deed or anything worthy of pride. In religious terminology, manqaba means the eulogies of the Imams of Ahl al-Bayt. The qasida may eulogize any person, while manqaba is specific for extolling Ahl al-Bayt. The forms in which the poems are composed correspond to the traditional style of both Arabo-Persian and vernacular poetry. In the Central Asia, the popular eulogies are chanted during religious ceremonies or festivals, known as maddah (pl. maddahin) means eulogy, composed in Persian and Tajik in Tajikistan. The munajat ba-dargah qazi al-kh’ojat is famous ode in the jamat of Tajikistan.

The ginans or the religious hymns initially associated with the preaching of Ismaili doctrines, continue to exercise a significant influence in the life of the Ismailis not only in the Indo-Pakistan subcontinent, but also in other parts of world where they have immigrated, such as East Africa, Europe, Canada, United States, etc. The word ginan is derived from the Sanskrit jnana means knowledge – a contemplative knowledge indeed. The ginans are the focus of intense veneration, the repository of spiritual knowledge and wisdom. The Ismailis of the Indo-Pakistan subcontinent employ the ginans to designate a special type of poetic composition with symbols and metaphors, whose authorship is attributed to Ismaili Pirs. It was during their proselytizing activities that these Pirs have composed the several hundred hymns of varying length. They employed the indigenous dialects of Sind, Kutchh, Gujrat and Punjab where they operated. The new converts thus absorbed the best of Islam and developed a new sort of thought through ginans more Indian than foreign in character. The ginans are intended to be chanted and recited aloud according to prescribed melodies (ragas) and folk tunes. In sum, the ginans are unique genres in the Indian Ismaili tradition. Besides, the Kalam-e-Mawla (the versified saying of Mawla Ali) and the munajat are also recited in the Jamatkhana.

In Iran, the instructive kalam of Imam Abdus Salam (d. 899/1493), called Panj Sukhan-i Hazarat-i Shah Abdus Salam, the kalam of Imam Nizar II (d. 1038/1628) and the qasa’id of Azizullah Qummi, Khaki Khorasani (d. 1056/1646) and other da’is play tremendous role of devotional literature.

The ginans of the Indian Pirs and the poetical works of Nasir Khusaro drew close attention to the western scholarship, and many scholars are engaged in its research works in different universities.

The devotional literature exercised as a vehicle to adhere to the Ismaili faith. It exhorted as a living book during the period when they were far from their Imams in different periods. It formed a tradition, the only means to refresh their faith and obtained immense tranquility. Each Ismaili tradition is however diverse in character, but unique in essence. The devotional literature has had a profound impact on all respects on different cultural life. These literary traditions richly bear the stamp of the mystical trends. There is obviously a large amount of linguistic and philosophical material to be found in this literature, and its metaphorical expressions can often be understood only with the tool of interpretation.